Zimbabwe: The Rebel Colony (1963-1979)

Updated January 2008

The collapse of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1963 revealed the extent of the political fault lines over the future of Rhodesia; the settler community (led by the Rhodesian Front (RF)) was increasingly alarmed by the prospect of African majority rule and became ever more determined to prevent power from slipping from their hands, while the African nationalists (led by the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)) demanded exactly that (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007). The British government attempted to reconcile the two demands by mooting independence for the colony only under a constitution that would see a gradual extension of the franchise to Africans and eventual majority rule, a position that pleased none of the parties (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007). In April 1964 Ian Smith, who advocated unconditional independence for Rhodesia under a regime of permanent White minority rule, became leader of the Rhodesian Front, and relations between the government and the nationalist and with Britain deteriorated rapidly (Wikipedia 2007a).

As had happed to ZAPU before it, ZANU was banned, and the leaders of both movements were imprisoned while their followers were forced to regroup in exile (Wikipedia 2007a; Esterhuysen 2004). In the meanwhile elections in Britain brought the Labour Party to power and its leader, Harold Wilson, was determined that no independence would be granted without a commitment to eventual African majority rule; Smith, unwilling to accede to this, called a referendum in November in November 1964 in which the electorate endorsed unconditional independence (Esterhuysen 2004; Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007). In the subsequent election in May 1965 the RF won 52 of the 65 seats despite strong opposition from the business community (Esterhuysen 2004; Selby 2007, 65).

Wilson warned in October 1965 that economic sanctions would be imposed should the Rhodesian government declare unilateral independence, but this was disregarded and after assuming emergency powers on 5 November, on the 11th Smith declared Rhodesia a sovereign state (the crown to was offered to Queen Elizabeth II who declined it and a republic was subsequently declared in 1969; Esterhuysen 2004; Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007; Gwisai 2002). No diplomatic recognition was forthcoming, Britain imposed limited economic sanctions and in December mandatory economic sanctions were resolved by the United Nations Security Council (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007; Esterhuysen 2004). These had limited success initially since neither South Africa nor the Portuguese in Mozambique adhered to them (Esterhuysen 2004). Despite attempts to circumvent the boycott of tobacco, which was a major source of foreign exchange, export of the crop suffered badly (Selby 2006, 67; Esterhuysen 2004). The territory's strong manufacturing sector initially benefited as import substitution was undertaken and the economy expanded rapidly initially, but was soon curtailed as shortages of foreign exchange and foreign investment made the import of capital difficult (Selby 2006, 67; Esterhuysen 2004).

In the face of the intransigence of the Smith government and the closing of all avenues of non-violent protest to them, the nationalist movements launched guerrilla armies in 1966; ZAPU established the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and ZANU the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA; Esterhuysen 2004). Though their activities were limited in scope and range a period of increasingly violent confrontation that was to involve all parties in a brutal and destructive war had begun. Further talks with Britain in December 1966 and in October 1968, in the face of the apparent failure of the guerrilla struggle and of sanctions came to nothing and Britain hardened its position by adopting a "no independence before majority rule" principle (Esterhuysen 2004).

It was in this environment that the 1969 republican constitution was adopted which introduced a ceremonial presidency, a racially segregated franchise and a Senate for the first time. Whites on the A Roll elected 50 of the 66 members of the House of Assembly and 10 of the 23 members of the Senate, while Africans on the B Roll elected eight members of the House of Assembly and a further eight were elected by traditional leaders; ten members of the Senate were tribal chiefs and three Senators were presidential nominees (Esterhuysen 2004). It was provided for that once African increased their share of direct income tax from 0.5% to 24%, their share of seats in the National Assembly would rise in proportion to their share of tax paid to eventual parity with whites (50 seats); an eventuality that the government regarded as extremely remote (Esterhuysen 2004). White power was further consolidated by including the provisions of the Land Tenure Act of 1969, which allocated half the land to each of the races, in the constitution (Hanyama Undated; Selby 2006, 69). The constitution was endorsed by the electorate in a referendum held in May 1969 and parliamentary elections followed in April 1970, in which the RF won all 50 of the (white) A Roll seats (Wikipedia 2007b).

The hardening of nationalist attitudes in response to the repression and racism that had dominated the late 1960's returned to haunt the Whites when the Pierce Commission of 1971/2 attempted, once more, to find a solution to the conflict (Esterhuysen 2004; Selby 2006, 70). While a gradual move to African majority rule and land reform (financed by Britain) now became acceptable to Whites, the nationalists were no longer amenable to such compromises and, peacefully mobilised by the African National Council under the leadership of Bishop Abel Muzorewa and Reverend Canaan Banana, the majority of Africans were able to articulate their rejection of the proposals and the initiative came to naught (Esterhuysen 2004; Selby 2006, 70-71). The economy experienced modest growth in the early 1970s and real incomes for Whites and Africans continued to rise, but the fundamentals of the situation were undergoing a shift that would bring an end to the settler state by the end of the decade (Wikipedia 2007c).

References

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE NATIONS 2007 "Zimbabwe: History", [www] http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Zimbabwe-HISTORY.html [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

ESTERHUYSEN, P 2004 "Zimbabwe: an historical overview", Institute of Strategic Studies, [www] http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-9396258_ITM [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

GWISAI, M 2002 "Revolutionaries, resistance and crisis in Zimbabwe" FROM Zeilig, L (ed), Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, New Clarion Press, Cheltenham, UK, [www] http://www.dsp.org.au/links/node/77 [opens new window] (accessed 12 Dec 2007).

HANYAMA, M UNDATED "Background to Land Reform in Zimbabwe", Embassy of Zimbabwe in Stockholm, [www] http://www.zimembassy.se/land_reform_document.htm [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

SELBY, A 2006 COMMERCIAL FARMERS AND THE STATE: INTEREST GROUP POLITICS AND LAND REFORM IN ZIMBABWE, Doctoral Thesis, Oxford University, [www] http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/493/1/thesis+final.pdf [PDF documnet, opens new window] (accessed 11 Dec 2007).

WIKIPEDIA 2007a "Colonial history of Southern Rhodesia", [www] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_history_of_Zimbabwe [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

WIKIPEDIA 2007b "Rhodesian general election, 1970" [www] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesian_general_election,_1970 [opens new window] (accessed 4 Jan 2008).

WIKIPEDIA 2007c "History of Rhodesia", [www] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rhodesia [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).