Zimbabwe: Zimbabwes Kingdoms (1000 - 1838 CE)

Updated December 2007

Increasing levels of population, greater social complexity and economic specialization seems to have resulted in the development of small chiefdoms, at least in the northern plateau and the Zambezi Valley by the 12th century CE. Cattle-holding increased, trade through regional networks and with the Indian Ocean network expanded and craft specialization took place (Pwiti 1996, 40-41). These, in due course, gave rise to the culture of zimbabwes, of relatively large settlements with dry stone walls and enclosures containing circular houses made of clay (daga, which hardens like cement) and poles about three metres in diameter and thatched roofs (Hirst Undated; Owen 2000; Matenga 1998, 8).

This culture spread though out Zimbabwe and into Mozambique and Botswana and was eventually consolidated in the early 15th century, either by conquest or by establishing cattle-loan client-patron relations (or both), into a single state, known as Munhumutapa to the Europeans (from the Shona Mwene Mutapa or "the conquered lands"), with its capital at Great Zimbabwe (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2007; Pwiti 1996, 45-46; Matenga 1998, 15. Pwiti discusses the problem of state formation at some length). The other urban centres then functioned as regional capitals and administrative centres (Owen 2000; Matenga 1998, 8). The enclosures themselves contained housing for between 10-30 people, who were, presumably the local aristocracy with commoners living around it and supplying to their needs. Material remains from within the enclosures include high quality serving vessels and luxury imports and indication of a beef and veal rich diet. Outside the enclosures the density of houses is three times that of within, and sheep and goats provided the meat (Owen 2000; Matenga 1998, 8). The third level of settlement consisted of smaller villages without stone walls (Owen 2000). Taxes, in the form of grain, salt, metal, ivory and labour were extracted (Matenga 1998, 9; Pwiti 1996, 49).

The economy was based on livestock farming, sorghum, millet, ground beans, cowpeas and bananas from Indonesia introduced by Arabs (Dewey 2006, 5; Owen 2000). This was supplemented by mining of gold (primarily for export), iron, copper and tin; soapstone was also quarried and elephants were hunted for ivory (Owen 2000). Metal work used iron for tools and weaons and copper, bronze and gold for jewelry items. Other manufacturing activities included pottery, soapstone carvings and cloth production from cotton grown in the Zambezi valley (Owen 2000; Matenga 1998, 8). Cattle performed a critical political function as well, for Matenga (1998, 9) notes that cattle loans were used to cement political loyalty and royal power and, through bridewealth, political marriages (see also Pwiti 1996, 46).

To this diverse and developed economy, founded on the exploitation of indigenous resources, trade brought luxury goods such as glass beads, fine porcelain, brass wire and utensils in exchange for animal skins, ivory and gold; it is estimated that some 7 to 9 million ounces of gold was exported before 1890 (Matenga 1998, 9; Owen 2000). The central nexus of the trade system came to be Great Zimbabwe, which added to the prestige of its rulers and thereby facilitated their territorial expansion (Pwiti 1996, 46-47). The site of Great Zimbabwe was first settled around the fifth century CE and construction of the dry stone walls and the platforms on which the houses were erected began in the mid 13th century (Hirst Undated; Dewey 2006, 5). The city prospered greatly between 1250-1450 CE and the bulk of the construction was done between the 1300-1450 (Dewey 2006, 5; Owen 2000; Hirst Undated). At is height the city contained a population of as many as18 000 and covered an area of 78 acres (Hirst Undated; Owen 2000). It functioned not only as the capital of the kingdom and centre of trade, but also functions as a cultic centre that legitimised the rule of the king (Matenga 1998, 16-17).

References

DEWEY, WJ 2006 "Repatriation of a Great Zimbabwe Stone Bird", [www] http://cohesion.rice.edu/CentersAndInst/SAFA/emplibrary/Dewey,W.Safa2006.pdf [PDF document, opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE NATIONS 2007 "Zimbabwe: History", [www] http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Zimbabwe-HISTORY.html [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

HIRST, KK UNDATED "Great Zimbabwe (Zimbabwe)". [www] http://archaeology.about.com/od/gterms/g/great_zimbabwe.htm [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

MATENGA, E 1998 The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe, African Publishing Group, Zimbabwe.

OWEN, B 2000 "Great Zimbabwe", [www] http://bruceowen.com/worldprehist/3250s14.htm [opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).

PWITI, G 1996 "Peasants, Chiefs and Kings: A Model of the Development of Cultural Complexity in Northern Zimbabwe", Zambezia, 23(1), [www] http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20 University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol23n1/juz023001004.pdf [PDF document, opens new window] (accessed 6 Dec 2007).