Zambia: Rise of African Nationalism (1945-1964)

Updated January 2006

As elsewhere in Africa the post-Second World War saw a surge in nationalism and self assertiveness among the African population. In 1946 representatives from mutual aid societies formed the first African society that transcended regional and ethnic divides and spanned the colony, the Federation of African Welfare Societies (Columbia Encyclopedia 2005a). Two years later the Mineworkers Union was created and in the same year the Federation of African Welfare Societies reformed itself as the Northern Rhodesia African Nationalist Congress (ANC), under the leadership of Harry Nkumbula. A union for railway workers was established in 1949 (Columbia Encyclopedia 2005a, Holmes 2004).

The nationalist movement was given further impetus by the decision of the Colonial Office to permit the formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953, which combined Northern and Southern Rhodesia with what is now Malawi. The Nationalists regarded the federation as a tool for subsidizing the bankrupt colony of Southern Rhodesia, in its drive to improve infrastructure for the white settlers there. Resistance to the Federation provided the nationalists with a new focus; as their struggle against the Federation intensified so they became increasingly radicalized and their demands more militant (US State Department 2005, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005a, Holmes 2004, Lambert Undated).

For their part, the colonial government responded with a series of reforms designed to take the edge off the emerging nationalist militancy. Since the hopes of massive white immigration to the territory had not been met 40 million hectares of land that had been expropriated for their use were reassigned for African use in 1947 (Hansungule et al 1998). In 1946 an African Representative Council was constituted on a colony-wide level, with 25 elected representatives and 4 nominees of the king of Barotseland. This was supplemented in 1948 with the appointment of Africans to the legislative council (Lambert Undated).

The formation of the Federation initiated a turbulent period in Zambia's history, marked by industrial unrest and political conflict. A 58 day strike over wages in 1955 resulted in workers demands being met and led to policy changes by the mining companies leading to increased appointment of Africans to managerial positions (Holmes 2004). A new constitution introduced by the colonial government in 1958 exposed the divisions that existed in the ANC. When Nkumbula accepted the constitution, younger and more militant members broke away to form the Zambia African National Congress, under the leadership of the ANC Secretary General, Kenneth Kaunda. This radical organization was quickly banned by the colonial authorities and Kaunda was detained. On his release in 1960 Kaunda formed the United National Independence Party (UNIP) and began campaigning vigorously for independence from Zambia with the critical support of the trade union movement. Intense rivalry and conflict between the ANC and UNIP became increasingly violent (Holmes 2004, Lambert Undated).

By 1960 the British Government, recognizing that the tide of nationalism in Africa was irresistible and that the days of colonial and settler rule were numbered, began to seek ways to accede to nationalist demands while stilling the fears of African rule among the powerful settler communities. A proposed constitution for Northern Rhodesia providing for government by the Africans was rejected by the settlers and when it appeared that the British would bow to their pressure Kaunda launched a campaign to paralyze the territory. Despite calls for peaceful demonstrations by the UNIP leadership violent uprising and acts of sabotage took place. The British cobbled together an agreement that gave African a small majority while the settlers were granted influence far beyond their numbers (Lambert Undated, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005a).

In 1962 elections were held, under the new constitution, in which UNIP garnered the lions' share of the African vote. In coalition with the ANC, UNIP formed the government and set forth its agenda: Withdrawal from the Federation, full self-government and a democratically elected legislature formed their key demands (US State Department 2005, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005b). The British met these demands by dissolving the Federation in December 1963, and holding universal adult suffrage elections in January 1964. These elections were convincingly won by UNIP with 56 and the ANC formed the opposition with 9 seats. The path to independence was now cleared (US State Department 2005, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005b, Holmes 2004, Lodge et al 2002).

Economically speaking, the 10 years of Federation were disastrous for Northern Rhodesia: The wealth generated in the north from mining was channeled into developing the economic and social infrastructure of the south to the benefit of the settler elite, while the north lacked proper roads, schools, a university and health care facilities. The only substantial state investment was the Kariba dam and the hydroelectricity it produced, but even that had been constructed more for the benefit of south than for the north. At independence Zambia university graduates barely numbered 100; both the private sector and the civil service were totally reliant on expatriate expertise to function efficiently. The economy of the country was heavily dependent on mining, with copper alone accounting for 90% of foreign exchange earnings (Lambert Undated, Holmes 2004, US State Department 2005).

References

COLUMBIA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2005a, "Zambia", Sixth Edition, [www] http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Zambia.html [opens new window] (accessed 26 Oct 2007).

HOLMES, T 2004 "The History of Zambia", The Zambian, [www] http://www.thezambian.com/history/ [opens new window] (accessed 26 Oct 2007).

LAMBERT, T UNDATED "A Short History of Zambia", IN Local Histories, [www] http://www.localhistories.org/zambia.html [opens new window] (accessed 26 Oct 2007).

LODGE, T, KADIMA, D & POTTIE, D (eds) 2002 A Compendium of Elections in Southern Africa, EISA, 373-403.

US STATE DEPARTMENT 2005 "Background Note: Zambia" [www] http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2359.htm [opens new window] (accessed 26 Oct 2007).