Madagascar: Late Merina Kingdom (1828-1896)

Updated November 2005

The westernization programme followed by Radama I aroused opposition amongst conservative elements of the aristocracy who resented the erosion of traditional cultural beliefs and forms and the key role played by foreign interpolators. Headed by Queen Ranavolona, Radama's wife, the reaction culminated in the assassination of Radama in 1828 and the ascension of Ranavolona to the throne. During her reign the kingdom turned inwards, Christianity was suppressed in 1835, its adherents persecuted and most foreigners fled. Trade was closely controlled and restricted to the Marina elite. A few foreigners were permitted to deal in commodities such as rice and cattle, while the slave trade was resumed under a French monopoly. An attempt by a combined British and French force to dislodge her from the throne in 1845 was decisively defeated. Opposition to her rule expressed itself in periodic rebellions which were brutally repressed (Mulford 1993, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005).

Radama II succeeded her on her death in 1861 and reversed her policies. Foreigners were permitted to return and cordial relations, especially with France, were established. Sections of the nobility opposed especially the close relations with France and he was killed in a coup in 1863. Government passed effectively into the hands of his Prime Minister, General Rainilaiarivony, who as a commoner could not hold the throne in his own right. Succession of the throne thus passed to Radama's widow, Rasoherina, whom he married to legitimise his power. The treaties with France were repudiated and a monopoly trade charter granted to a French company was annulled (Columbia Encyclopedia 2005, Mulford 1993, Library of Congress 1994a).

Nevertheless the policy of openness was continued; missionaries, including Catholics, were permitted to resume their work and traders to return. The Catholic missionaries concentrated their work in the coastal areas, where Protestantism had made little inroad, and were able to convert a substantial minority to Catholicism over time. Rainilaiarivony attempted to continue the programme of modernisation while balancing the demands of the French and the British without giving either an excuse for direct intervention (Library of Congress 1994a, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005).

Queen Rasoherina died in 1863 and was succeeded by Ranavalona II, whom Rainilaiarivony promptly married, and modernisation proceeded on the same lines as before. Trade treaties with France and Britain were signed in 1868 and 1877 respectively and the ruling couple converted to Protestantism in 1869. Ranavalona II died in 1883 and Rainilaiarivony married her successor, Ranavalona III; the programme of modernisation continued (Library of Congress 1994a, Columbia Encyclopedia 2005). During the course of Rainilaiarivony's government new legal codes were adopted and polygamy and slavery prohibited. Literacy was greatly advanced among the Merina and Bétsiléo and by 1896 some 164 000 children were in primary school, while publications in the Merina dialect were available to the literate classes (Library of Congress 1994a).

Rainilaiarivony's foreign relations balancing act began to fall apart in the second half of the 19th century as French incursions on Madagascar were no longer blocked by Britain. In 1883 the French occupied Toamsina in the south and in 1885 they declared Madagascar a French protectorate; this the British acknowledged in 1890 in return for a similar French recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar. Attempts by the French to rule indirectly were opposed by Rainilaiarivony and the French responded by invading Madagascar in 1895. After heavy fighting, as a result of resistance led by Rainilaiarivony, French control was established. Madagascar was declared a colony in 1896, the monarchy was abolished and the ruling couple was deported (Columbia Encyclopedia 2005, US State Department 2005, Mulford 1993, Library of Congress 1994b).

References

COLUMBIA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2005 "Madagascar", Sixth edition, [www] http://www.bartleby.com/65/ma/Madagasc.html [opens new window] (accessed 23 Oct 2007).

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1994a "Precolonial Era, Prior to 1894" IN Country Study: Madagascar [www] http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mg0013) [opens new window] (accessed 23 Oct 2007).

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1994b "Colonial Era, 1894-1960" IN Country Study: Madagascar [www] http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mg0014) [opens new window] (accessed 23 Oct 2007).

MULFORD, MR 1992 "Madagascar: A Tradition of Continuity" [www] http://www.frontiernet.net/~mmulford/madag.htm [opens new window] (accessed 23 Oct 2007).

US STATE DEPARTMENT 2005 "Background Note: Madagascar" [www] http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm [opens new window] (accessed 23 Oct 2007).