The 1999 DRC Cease-fire Agreement and the 1994 Lusaka Protocol from a Gender Perspective (continued)
The only unequivocally gender-aware clause in the Agreement is contained in Annex A, Chapter 5(3), which deals with National Dialogue and Reconciliation:
The Parties agree that the Organisation of African Unity shall assist the Democratic Republic of Congo in organising the inter-Congolese political negotiations under the aegis of a neutral facilitator chosen by the Parties by virtue of his/her moral authority, his/her international credibility and his/her experience (United States Institute of Peace 1999).
This clause recognises that women, as well as men, have an important role to play in the DRC peace process. In the event, a man, Sir Ketumile Masire, who is Botswana's former head of state, was the first person to be assigned to this post.
In its attempts to integrate gender concerns into the DRC peace negotiations, the DRC Cease-fire Agreement is a vast improvement on the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, which governed the cease-fire in Angola. For example, conspicuously absent from the provisions of Paragraph 1 of the General Principles relating to The Police (Annex 5: Agenda Item II.2) are specific references to "sex" and/or "gender", which would indicate that the peace negotiators were gender-sensitive in their outlook and committed to mainstreaming gender concerns into the peace agreement:
The Angolan National Police is the organ of the Angolan State Administration responsible for the maintenance of public order and the defence of the interests, integrity and security of all persons in Angola, irrespective of their nationality, place of birth, race, religion, social origin or political party affiliation (United States Institute of Peace 1998).
Furthermore, the provisions in the Lusaka Protocol concerning gender equality, such as Paragraph 10 of the General Principles relating to the United Nations Mandate, the Role of the Observers of the Acordos de Paz and the Joint Commission (Annex 8: Agenda Item II.3), include only a general guarantee of equality in relation to fundamental rights and freedoms:
The Government and UNITA commit themselves to implement the "Acordos de Paz para Angola" (Bicesse), the relevant resolutions of the United Nations Security Council and the Lusaka Protocol, respecting the principles of the rule of law, the general principles of internationally recognised human rights, more particularly, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the fundamental freedoms of the individual, such as defined by the national legislation in force and the various international legal instruments to which Angola adheres (United States Institute of Peace 1998).
The Lusaka Protocol renders women invisible as if "civilians", "displaced persons" and "citizens" are gender neutral, which is not the case. Women are adversely and disproportionately affected by conflict-related refugee crises (Coomaraswamy 1998) and yet women are generally excluded from discussions about their specific needs and rarely take part in decision-making.
If peace agreements aimed at benefiting conflict-ridden societies are to succeed, then the participation of women in peace negotiations and related decision-making processes is vital. However, simply having women in powerful decision-making positions does not, of course, guarantee improvements in the lives of women in general. The important thing is to have women or men in decision-making positions who understand the reality of women's lives in conflict situations. These individuals should be sensitive to gender issues and should be committed to working towards greater equality between men and women.
References
COOMARASWAMY, R 1998, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, United Nations, [www] http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/ [opens new window].
UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE 1998, "Lusaka Protocol" (15 November 1994), IN Library Peace Agreements Digital Collection [www] http://www.usip.org/library/pa/index/pa_angola.html [opens new window] & http://www.usip.org/library/pa/angola/lusaka_11151994.html [opens new window].
UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE 1999, "Cease-fire Agreement" (10 July 1999 - 31 August 1999), IN Library Peace Agreements Digital Collection, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1999, [www] http://www.usip.org/library/pa/index/pa_drc.html [opens new window] & http://www.usip.org/library/pa/drc/drc_07101999.html.