Botswana: British colonial penetration (19th Century-1932)

Extracted from: "Botswana" IN Compendium of Elections in Southern Africa (2002), edited by Tom Lodge, Denis Kadima and David Pottie, EISA, 35-36.

In comparison with the history of its immediate neighbours, Botswana's road to independence was a relatively peaceful one. In part this was because the country did not attract a European settler group politically powerful enough to challenge the development of black nationalism; in addition, the fact that Britain negotiated the transition to independence with a group of politicians who were supported in the process by the majority of the population made the process legitimate and peaceful.

The decolonisation of British-ruled territories was characterised by rounds of constitutional negotiations with nationalist forces, and Botswana was no exception. What does mark Botswana (or Bechuanaland as it was known before independence) out is the late introduction of a law-making body with African representation, and the late development of political parties. A legislative council (LEGCO) was only introduced in 1960, and independence came just six years later, in 1966. Elections based on universal suffrage were held for the first time the previous year.

Much of the area's colonial history was determined by the relations between the various European imperial powers, and also by the conflict between the Cape Colony and the Boer Republic of the Transvaal (the South African Republic). Up to the 19th century, the territory was the scene of a series of land struggles, which eventually saw the Tswana speaking groups, the BaNgwato, being the largest, dominate their rivals. From the 1820s, slave raiding and internal conflict, sometimes known as the Difaqane destabilised the region. The BaTswana came under threat from other African forces that sought to gain control of the region, especially those under the leadership of Mzilikazi.

To complicate matters, the Boer trekkers, having left the Cape in 1837, were attempting to establish an area of settlement for themselves. British missionaries, and later the BaNgwato Kgosi (chief) Khama ill, tried to persuade the British government to protect the region from the chaos. Britain, however, only became interested in establishing a protectorate in the early 1880s. This followed the apparent possibility of the north-westward expansion of the South African Republic, and the threat of it linking up with German South West Africa. Meanwhile, Cecil Rhodes in the Cape Colony was concerned that the 'road to the north ' would be blocked off, thus spelling the end to his expansionist plans.

British jurisdiction was declared at the beginning of 1885, and by 1899 the Protectorate included all of what is now Botswana. Eight major BaTswana groups came under British rule, as well as other groups such as the Sarwa and the Herero. The nature of British rule was rather nebulous, and there was no clear thought as to how it should develop. Initially, the idea was to allow traditional chiefs maximum independence, but in 1891 laws were passed to establish courts, regulate trade and raise taxes. Inevitably, British protection meant more than keeping the Protectorate at arm's length, and British rule eroded the authority of the chiefs. In 1899 the British created tribal reserves for the BaNgwato, the BaKwena, the BaNgeaketse, the BaKgatla, and the BaTawana; the remaining areas were declared crown lands reserved for white settlement.

Collective action by traditional leaders was impeded by the British system of indirect rule, which determined that they would be dealt with separately. Chiefs were supposed to be responsible for their own territory, but their actions were subject to the approval of the resident magistrate. There were, however, times when the leaders united to appeal to the imperial government. This occurred in response to the South African Act of Union of 1910. The act looked forward to a time when Bechuanaland would be included in South Africa - a prospect which did not find favour with the BaTswana chiefs. Their protests elicited the official British response that before any transfer took place the wishes of the inhabitants would be ascertained. Despite this, the possibility of union with South Africa remained a constant theme in Bechuanaland politics.