Angola: Portuguese, African polities and the slave trade (1482-1614)

Updated October 2005

After the capture of Cueta from the Muslims in 1415 the Portuguese sought a way to outflank the Muslim principalities to the south and the east and establish an independent route to the east free from Muslim control (Amaral 2005). In 1482 a Portuguese exploration mission under Diogo Cão reached the Kongo Kingdom where he was welcomed by King Nzinga Nkuwu (Columbia Encyclopedia 2001).

The two powers exchanged embassies, and Nzinga Nkuwu was favourably impressed by the reports he received of Portuguese culture, religion and technology. At his request the Portuguese sent missionaries, tradesmen and military advisors to the Kongo; these arrived at the Capital, M'banza Kongo, in 1491 (Columbia Encyclopedia 2001, Accord 2004, Library of Congress 1989a).

The missionaries made rapid inroads amongst the people of the kingdom, which was facilitated by the conversion of Nzinga Nkuwu and a large part of the aristocracy. Aided by Portuguese military personnel João I, as Nzinga Nkuwu styled himself after his baptism, was able to suppress a rebellion, providing direct evidence of the usefulness of the Portuguese to the kingdom (Ellsworth 1999, 19, Columbia Encyclopedia 2001).

Initially the Portuguese established coastal trading posts in the vicinity of Luanda, focused on the export of slaves and ivory in exchange for firearms and other European goods (Human Rights & Documentation Centre undated). Shortly after establishing relations with the Kongo Kingdom the Portuguese made contact with the vassals of the Kongo, the Ndongo Kingdom under the Ngola (King) Kiluange (Library of Congress 1989b).

Through skillful diplomacy Kiluange was able to form a series of alliances with neighbouring polities and hold Portuguese encroachment at bay. Eventually he was captured and beheaded by the Portuguese in Luanda (Angolan Embassy 1996).

João I died in 1505 and was succeeded by Afonso I, who was a devout Catholic and who vigorously pursued the conversion and Europeanization of the Kongo (Columbia Encyclopedia 2001, Library of Congress 1989a). Portugal, in the meanwhile expanded its colonial ventures in Sao Tome, Principe and Brazil, and more especially the establishment of labour intensive sugar plantations. This in turn bred a burgeoning and lucrative trade in slaves and it was to the Kongo that the slave traders looked for their supply (Library of Congress 1989a).

As the attention of the Portuguese crown shifted towards the new colonies so interest in the Kongo waned; the missionaries and other personnel returned to Portugal. Relations between the Kongo and Portugal were left increasingly in the hands of the slave traders who, far from the writ of the Portuguese crown, were increasingly contemptuous of the authority of that of the Kongo (Library of Congress 1989a).

As the demand for slaves soared Alfonso became concerned at the economic and social devastation the trade was causing to the kingdom. When his complaints to the Portuguese king went untended he attempted, unsuccessfully, to ban all trade with Portugal (Ellsworth 1999, 19). Ellsworth (1999, 19) claims that "slave extraction soared to 60 000 in the first two decades and to 345 000 from 1506-1575".

In view of the strained relationship with the Kongo kingdom, and in order to secure a supply of slave independent of the Alfonso, the Portuguese turned their attention south, to the Ndongo kingdom, engaging in illegal slave trade directly with the Mbundu. Hitherto the slave trade had passed exclusively through the Kongo port of Mpinda, but now passed increasingly through Portuguese trading posts on the southern coast, close to the Ndongo kingdom (Accord 2004, Ellsworth 1999, 20).

This direct trade stimulated the economic and political power of the Ndongo kingdom, enabling them to challenge the overlordship of the Kongo at a time when the Kongo was undergoing internal stresses from depopulation and civil unrest (Ellsworth 1999, 20-21). An indication of the instability that wracked the kingdom is found in the fact that no less than six kings reigned in the Kongo in the twenty-five years between the death of Alfonso I in 1543 and the accession of Alvaro I in 1568 (Gordon undated).

Angered by the activity of Portuguese traders and missionaries in the territory of his vassals, Alfonso's successor, Alvaro I, sent a punitive force to bring the Mbundu to heel in 1556. The invading army was routed with Portuguese aid and the Ndongo kingdom seized the opportunity to assert its independence (Library of Congress 1989a, 1989c, Columbia Encyclopedia 2001).

Portuguese relations with the Ndongo polity rapidly began to sour after 1560 as the kingdom attempted to assert itself; military conflicts became increasingly frequent (Library of Congress 1989b). This provided no respite for the Kongo, for a major upheaval (whether an external invasion or an internal revolt aided by foreign allies is unclear) led to the sacking of São Salvador, as M'banza Kongo had been renamed, and the exile of Alvaro I (Columbia Encyclopedia 2001, Library of Congress 1989b).

With Portuguese aid, and after five years of warfare, Alvaro was able to regain control of his kingdom. He and his successor, Alvaro II, managed to stabilize the Kongo kingdom and ward off Portuguese incursions until the latter's death in 1614 (Columbia Encyclopedia 2001, Library of Congress 1989a, 1989c).

Eventually, as the trade with the Mbundu increased, the Portuguese founded Luanda in 1576 (or 1576) and Benguela in 1587 to handle the traffic (Accord 2004, Ellsworth 1999, 20, History World undated). Luanda formed the basis for an ever more aggressive and bloody Portuguese penetration into the interior, specifically into the territory of the Mbundu. The importance of the slave trade to the Portuguese crown was indicated by the decision to take control directly of the Angola settlements by the Portuguese government in 1590 (Library of Congress 1989a, 1989c).

Portuguese penetration into the interior was met with constant resistance by the Ndongo kingdom, but the slow progress was rewarded with a constant stream of war captives to be shipped as slaves (Library of Congress 1989b).

References

ACCORD 2004 "Chronology" Accord 15, [www] http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/angola/chronology.php [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

AMARAL, L 2005, "Economic History of Portugal", IN Whaples, R (ed), EH.Net Encyclopedia, [www] http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/amaral.portugal [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

ANGOLAN EMBASSY 1996, "Pre Colonial Period" IN Virtual Historical Tour of Angola, Washington DC, [www] http://www.angola.org/referenc/history/tour0.html (offline 10 Mar 2010).

COLUMBIA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2001, "Kingdom of Kongo", Sixth Edition, [www] http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0828072.html [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

ELLSWORTH, KH 1999, "Racial and Ethnic Relations in the Modern World-System: A Comparative Analysis of Portuguese Influence in Angola and Brazil", Paper presented at the 1999 International Studies Assoc. Conference, February 19, 18-26 [www] http://www.public.asu.edu/~ellswork/isa1999.pdf [PDF document, opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

GORDON, BR UNDATED, "Central Africa" IN Regnal Chronologies, [www] http://my.raex.com/~obsidian/Centafr.html#Angola [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

HISTORY WORLD UNDATED, "History of Angola", [www] http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad33 [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

HUMAN RIGHTS & DOCUMENTATION CENTRE UNDATED, "Historical Background" IN Angola, [www] http://www.hrdc.unam.na/an_history.htm (offline 10 Mar 2010).

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1989a, "Kongo Kingdom" IN Country Study: Angola [www] http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ao0014) [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1989b, "Ndongo Kingdom" IN Country Study: Angola [www] http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ao0015) [opens new window] (accessed 10 Mar 2010).